Commission Commando Review
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The Strategic Commission Commando Management Process
Key marketing decisions are made within limits set by the organization. The strategic management process involves the steps taken at an organization’s corporate and divisional levels to develop long-run master strategies for survival and growth. In contrast, the strategic marketing process involves the steps taken at the product and market levels to allocate its marketing resources to viable marketing positions and programs.3 Key steps in each of these two processes are shown in Figure 2-1. Note that other units in the organization— assumed here to be a manufacturing firm—develop detailed plans based on directions from the strategic Commission Commando management process.
DEFINING THE ORGANIZATION’S BUSINESS (MISSION)
Organizations such as the San Francisco Ballet, Dallas Cowboys, Disneyland, Mayo Clinic, Procter & Gamble, Sears Roebuck, and 3M often ask themselves what “business”—in its broadest sense—they are in. The answer can dramatically narrow or broaden the range of marketing opportunities available.
Railroads may have let other forms of transportation take business away from them because they saw themselves in “the railroad business” rather than “the transportation business.”4 This narrow definition hurt railroads because they failed to design effective marketing strategies to compete with a broad range of modes of transportation, including airlines, trucks, bus lines, and cars.
Focusing the Commission Commando Business with the Three C’s Business theorists point out that three C’s—the customers, the competitors, and the company itself—interrelate to establish the basic character of an organization’s business.5 An organizational business (mission) is a statement about the type of customer it wishes to serve, the specific needs of these customers, and the means or technology by which it will serve these needs. This definition affects the company’s growth prospects by establishing guidelines for selecting opportunities in light of customer needs, competitors’ actions, the organization’s resources, and changes in environmental factors.
Sears’s Business In the early 1980’s, Sears Roebuck & Company discovered that discounters and specialty stores were winning over more and more of its traditional middle-class customers. This left Sears scrambling to find a market niche. First, it tried promoting itself as a fashion-oriented department store for higher-income customers. Failing at that, Sears experimented with budget products and price slashing. These efforts were also unsuccessful to produce a Commission Commando Review.
Today Sears has tried to “become itself’ again by selling functional, rather than fashionable, goods and services that offer value to middle-class, home- owning families. This definition of its business has permitted Sears (the company) to adapt to changing consumer tastes (the customer) in light of actions of other catalog and chain-store retailers (the competitors). Recently Sears has entered the service business in a big way: appliance installation, financial services through Dean Witter, real estate through Coldwell Banker, and even dental and optometry services. Perhaps Sears’ biggest gamble for the 1990’s is the development of an interactive Commission Commando Review.
in which commission commando consumers can buy products they see advertised. Sears and IBM invested more than $450 million in the system, called “Prodigy,” before it provided its first sales dollar. Sears obviously runs a diverse set of businesses, but all of them tie into its existing, tremendously strong distribution system.6 All these businesses can also use the Discover credit card, which was Sears’ biggest gamble for the 1980’s. The Discover card had lost $400 million by early 1988.7
SPECIFYING THE COMMISSION COMMANDO ORGANIZATION’S GOALS
An commission commando organization must translate the broad statement of its business into its organizational goals, specific objectives it seeks to achieve and by which it can measure its performance. For our purposes, the terms goals and objectives mean the same thing.
How an Organization’s Goals Relate to its Business An example of a precise policy statement of an organization’s business and goals is that of the Sara Lee Corporation (Figure 2-2). Note that the goals are specific targets that flow directly from the broader statement about Sara Lee Corporation’s businesss. In fact, the business statement is broad enough to cover five business segments. These segments and some of their better-known brand names include:
- U.S. consumer foods: Chef Pierre, Jimmy Dean Meats, Popsicle, Kitchens of Sara Lee
- International consumer foods: Douwc Egberts coffee (Europe), Hearty Fruit Muffins (Australia)
- Food service distribution: Booth Fisheries, PYA/Monarch, Lyon’s Restaurants
- Consumer personal products: Bali, Hanes Hosiery, L’eggs Products
- Consumer household products: Electrolux, Fuller Brush, Kiwi
All commission commando organizations, both profit and nonprofit, require some kind of goals. A business firm is an organization that carries on economic activity to earn a profit. In contrast, a nonprofit organization carries on economic activity to serve the needs of special segments of the public. Goals of these two different kinds of organizations are discussed separately in the following sections. For simplicity in the rest of the book, however, the terms firm, company, and organization are used to cover both business and nonprofit operations.
Goals of Business Firms Business firms, with some exceptions cited later, must earn profits to survive. Profit is the reward to a business firm for the risk it undertakes in offering a product for sale: the money left over after a firm’s total expenses are subtracted from its total revenues. As long as profits are earned fairly—and not through collusion, monopoly power, or other unfair business practices—they represent a reward for good performance. Thousands of firms fail every year because they are not run well enough and do not serve consumers well enough to make profits and continue operations. The profit of a commission commando business firm may be expressed in actual money earned during a time period (“an aftertax profit of $5 million”) or in terms of the money earned as a percentage of invested capital (“an after-tax profit of 15-percent return on investment [ROI]”).
Several different objectives have been identified that business firms can pursue, each of which has some limitations:
- Profit. Classic economic theory assumes a firm seeks to maximize long- run profit, achieving as high a financial return on its investment as possible. One difficulty with this is what is meant by long run. A year? Five years? Twenty years?
- Sales revenue. If profits are acceptable, a firm may elect to maintain or increase its sales level, even though profitability may not be maximized. The increased sales revenue may result in promotions sought by executives.
- Market share. A firm may choose to maintain or increase its market share, sometimes at the expense of greater profits if industry status or prestige is at stake. Market share is the ratio of sales revenue of the firm to the total sales revenue of all firms in the industry, including the firm itself.
- Unit sales. Sales revenue may be deceiving because of the effects of inflation, so a firm may choose to maintain or increase the number of units it sells, such as cars, cases of breakfast cereal, or TV sets.
- Survival. A firm may choose a safe action with reasonable payoff instead of one with large return that might endanger its future. It must survive today to be in business tomorrow.
- Social responsibility. A firm may respond to advocates of corporate responsibility and seek to balance conflicting goals of consumers, employees, and stockholders to promote overall welfare of all these groups, even at the expense of profits.
Whatever its primary goal, a Commission Commando Review business firm must achieve a profit level that is high enough for it to remain in operation. Satisfactory profits are possible only if consumer needs are identified and satisfied. Procter & Gamble (P&G) is a good example. For its corporate objectives, it seeks a 10 percent after-tax profit (twice the average for U. S. manufacturing firms) and a doubling of the sales revenue from a product every 5 years. To help achieve these objectives, it uncovers needs and manufactures products that have developed tremendous consumer loyalty in the marketplace. Its high-visibility brands introduced decades ago and still dominant are cases in point: Ivory Soap (introduced in 1879), Crisco (1912), Tide (1947), Pampers (1956), and Crest (1966). The long market lives of these products are proof of their continuing ability to satisfy consumer needs, a basic corporate objective of P&G.
Goals of Nonprofit Organizations Many private organizations that do not seek profits also exist in the United States. Examples are museums, symphony orchestras, operas, private hospitals, and research institutes. These Commission Commando Review strive to provide goods or services to consumers with the greatest efficiency and the least cost. The nonprofit organization’s survival depends on its meeting the needs of the consumers it serves. Government agencies have “serving the public good” as their primary goal. Such organizations include all levels of federal, state, and local government, as well as special groups such as city schools, state universities, and public hospitals. As discussed later, marketing is an important acitivity for nonprofit firms and government agencies, just as it is for profit-making businesses.
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COMMISSION COMMANDO SITUATION ANALYSIS
There are two steps in the Commission Commando situation analysis of the strategic marketing process.
Finding Where the Organization has Been and is Now Discovering where a company has been and is at present involves taking a careful inventory of the strengths and weaknesses of both the markets it serves and the array of com¬peting products in those markets (Figure 2-4). Two important considerations in this inventory are (1) the industry growth (growth of sales of all the firms competing in that market) and (2) the competitive position of the firm’s products relative to those of other Commission Commando businesses in the market.
High profits on a new product soon attract competitors. For example, GE had almost 2 dozen competitors within 2 years of introducing its electric carving
knife. Similarly, Sony’s Walkman, Apple’s PC, and Prince’s large-head tennis racket stimulated countless high-quality imitators who often leapfrogged the original innovation with improved models.
Projecting Where the Firm is Headed with Existing Plans When the firm knows where it is now with its present products and markets, it must project future sales and profits on the basis of its existing plans. This requires that the firm assess the impact of both internal and external factors on its products. Both can either constrain or enhance opportunities, as illustrated by IBM’s introduc¬tion of its PS/2.
Internal factors include departmental objectives and resources, as well as organizational strengths and weaknesses as identified by the SWOT analysis. The Commission Commando Bonus marketing manager must consider all of these in assessing the future.
By the mid-1980’s IBM’s overall market share in PCs had fallen, and it knew action was required. It decided to design a new line of PCs. Internal factors had a major effect on IBM’s decision:
• Departmental goal. The goal of the department was to develop and market a successful line of new PCs by mid-1987.
• Resources. IBM provided almost unlimited financial, technological, and marketing resources to its new PS/2 team.
• Strengths. In designing the PS/2, IBM’s special strengths were its name, the strength of its original PC, and its outstanding sales and customer service personnel.
• Weaknesses. IBM PCs did not have the ability to “network,” or “speak” to each other.
Thus internal factors can have both positive and negative effects on commission commando marketing decisions.
External factors in a SWOT analysis cover consumer demand and com¬petitive, economic, political, legal, and technological issues. All these affected IBM’s decision to introduce its PS/2:
• Consumer demand considerations. IBM research showed that consumers wanted PCs that were fast and user-friendly and could communicate with each other and large systems.
• Competitive considerations. Apple, Tandy, Compaq, and other IBM clones were already producing high-quality Commission Commando PCs.
• Economic considerations. The dollar was weakening against foreign cur-rencies, especially the Japanese yen, making foreign PCs more expensive than American-built PCs for U.S. buyers.
• Political and legal considerations. With the number of IBM clones in existence, a critical issue was whether competitors could legally “clone” its new PS/2.
• Technological considerations. Designing a technologically complex PS/2 line of PCs that could network with all sizes of IBM computers was a task that would tax even IBM’s resources. Could it be done at a cost that would eventually make the PS/2 profitable?
IBM added up the internal and external factors in the mid-1980’s and committed itself to the PS/2 project.
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SATISFYING COMMISSION COMMANDO CONSUMER NEEDS
Commission Commando Marketing doesn’t stop with the ideas obtained from the assessment of consumer needs. Since the organization obviously can’t satisfy all consumer needs, it must concentrate its efforts on certain needs of a specific group of potential consumers. This is the organization’s target market, one or more specific groups of potential consumers toward which it will direct its marketing program.
The Four P’s: Controllable Commission Commando Marketing Mix Factors Having selected the target market consumers, the firm must take steps to satisfy their needs. Someone in the organization’s marketing department, often the marketing manager, must take action and develop a complete marketing program to reach consumers by pulling a combination of four levers, often called the four P’s—a useful short¬hand reference to them first published by Professor E. Jerome McCarthy10:
• Product: a good, service, or idea to satisfy the consumer’s needs
• Price: what is exchanged for the product
• Promotion: a means of communication between the seller and buyer of Commission Commando
• Place: a means of getting the product into the consumer’s hands
We’ll define each of the four P’s more carefully later in the book, but for now it’s important to remember that they are the elements of the marketing mix, or simply the marketing mix. These are the marketing manager’s controllable factors, the marketing actions he or she can take in specific circumstances. The marketing mix elements are called controllable factors because they are under the control of the marketing department in an organization.
The Uncontrollable, Environmental Commission Commando Factors There are a host of factors largely beyond the control of the marketing department and its organization. These factors can be placed into five groups (Figure 1-2): social, technological, economic, competitive, and regulatory forces. Examples arc what consumers themselves want and need, changing technology, the state of the economy in terms of whether it is expanding or contracting, actions that competitors take, and government restrictions. These uncontrollable or environmental factors in a marketing decision may serve as an accelerator or a brake on marketing, sometimes expanding an organization’s marketing opportunities and other times restricting them. These five environmental factors are covered in Chapter 3.
Traditionally, many marketing executives have treated these environmental
factors as rigid, absolute constraints that are entirely outside their influence.”
However, recent studies and marketing successes have shown that a for¬ward-looking, action-oriented firm can often affect some environmental factors. IBM’s technical and marketing breakthroughs generated the entire electronic digital computer industry, even though initially consumers were apathetic. Apple did the same for personal computers. H.J. Heinz received permission to buy a controlling interest in a Zimbabwe food company to produce and sell Heinz products there. These consumer and political factors might have forestalled productive Commission Commando marketing actions had they been seen as rigid and uncontrollable.
The Marketing Program After assessment the marketing manager must translate the ideas from consumers into some concepts for products the firm might develop (Figure 1-4). These ideas must then be converted into a tangible marketing program a plan that integrates the marketing mix to provide a product, service, or idea to prospective consumers. These prospects then react to the offering favorably (by buying) or unfavorably (by not buying), and the process is repeated. In an effective organization this process is continuous: consumer needs trigger product concepts that are translated into actual products that stimulate further assessment of consumer needs.
A Marketing Program for Golden Valley Microwave Foods To see the specifics of a marketing program, let’s return to the earlier example of Jim Watkins, Golden Valley Microwave Foods, and their microwave popcorn.
Watkins knew that he and Golden Valley had a huge problem: finding ways to get their microwave popcorn onto shelves of retail stores. The company
didn’t have the money to hire its own sales force and establish its own distri¬bution system for sales to various types of retail outlets across the United States. So Watkins devised a marketing program for Golden Valley’s microwave pop¬corn with two key elements (Question 4, Figure 1-1). One element was a program in which the firm would market its popcorn under the brand name “Act II” to mass merchandisers such as K Mart and Target throughout the United States.
The second element was to gain space on supermarket and grocery store shelves across the country by granting an exclusive license to General Mills to market shelf-stable microwave popcorn using Golden Valley’s patented process and packaging technology. General Mills now sells microwave popcorn nation¬wide under the trademarked “Betty Crocker Pop Secret® brand name, using its own sales force and distribution system.
Watkins, working with General Mills, combined these two elements into two marketing programs for two different target markets: (1) mass merchan¬disers and (2) supermarkets. The two programs have these main features:
COMMISSION COMMANDO MARKETING PROGRAM FOR MASS MERCHANDISERS
COMMISSION COMMANDO MARKETING PROGRAM FOR SUPERMARKE TS
• Product 7>Vi ounccs of popcorn in an
Act II package that serves as the microwave cooking unit.
• Price 59# for a package, or S2.99 for
a “six-pack.”
• Promotion Sold direct to mass-merchan-
diser chain accounts. Ad-vertising in local newspa¬pers in ads run by mass merchandisers.
• Place Consumers can buy popcorn
on snack shelves of mass merchandisers throughout the United States.
3′/2 ounces of popcorn in a Betty Crocker Pop Secret package that serves as the microwave cooking unit.
$2.09 for a “three-pack.”
Sold by General Mills sales force to supermarkets. Ad-vertising in national TV commercials.
Consumers can buy popcorn on snack shelves of super-markets throughout the United States.
Current Golden Valley products are shown in Figure 1-5.
And how has the Golden Valley marketing program for its microwave popcorn turned out? So far, extremely well. By 1988, its regional brand—Act II — had 20 percent of all retail microwave popcorn sales throughout the United States. The Betty Crocker Pop Secret® brand of General Mills—which entered the market later than Act II—had another large share of the total U.S. market. Golden Valley’s “Microwave Morning” brand of microwave pancakes, which represented about 10 percent of its total sales revenue, was also doing well. So far, so good!
With things going so well, what concerns do Watkins and his firm have? Concerns center on both controllable marketing mix variables and uncontroll¬able environmental variables. Concerning the former, Golden Valley’s phenom¬enal growth—from annual sales of $8 million to S100 million in 4 years— possess serious challenges. For example, how do you grow from 20 to 400 employees in 4 years and ensure that high-quality products and on-time deliv-
erics are maintained? To continue growing, Watkins knows that he must broaden his product line. In 1988, after spending several million scarce dollars on research, Golden Valley introduced Act II microwave french fries (Question 5, Figure 1- 1)—an example of its company mission “of harnessing microwave energy to heat, brown, or crisp products using inexpensive, flexible packaging materials.”14
Although Watkins can’t anticipate all the uncontrollable factors facing his company, he has taken steps to minimize many threats. For example, Golden Valley has developed special hybrid popcorns that require 3 years of development to reach the consumer’s microwave. The company oversees all aspects of the popcorn growing process, even to contracting with Iowa and Nebraska farmers who use irrigated land to reduce the risk of drought. And Golden Valley has recently added highly automated production equipment—much of it designed by company engineers—to provide the large volume of packaged popcorn required by the market.
Jim Watkins remains optimistic and realistic. This is shown by his firm’s low overhead and lean operating style. “We make stuff and we sell stuff, and we don’t have a lot of nonsense in between. We focus on only one thing— microwave food—and we’re very competitive.”15 As a reminder of timing les¬sons from his past, Watkins still keeps a picture of his failed waterbike in his billfold.
